England

England is the largest of the four "home nations" that make up the United Kingdom. It is also the most populous of the four with almost 52 million inhabitants (roughly 90% of the total population of the UK). On the island of Great Britain, Scotland sits to the north of England and Wales is to the west. Northern Ireland (also part of the UK) and the Republic of Ireland lie across the Irish Sea to west of England (and Wales). France and the Channel Islands are across the English Channel to the south, and to the east is the North Sea. Don't confuse England with Britain or the UK.

Understand

Don't confuse "England" with the the larger "Britain" or "United Kingdom"; see the United Kingdom article for details.

Climate

England has been stereotyped as being cold, grey and rainy since the ancient Romans wrote home, but this is not an entirely accurate picture. The temperatures rarely get very cold or very hot, and while the country certainly gets rain, it's really not as wet as rumour has it. London alone has lower annual rainfall than Paris and New York, and it's not uncommon for parts of the country to go without rain for weeks and even months in rare cases. Parts of southern England often have summer water restrictions due to a lack of adequate rainfall during the previous winter, summer rainfall being inadequate to supply water demands.

Also in recent years, England has experienced some extremely hot summers. There is plenty of scope for leaving your raincoat at home, but make sure you've got one.

England's weather is very changeable on a day-to-day basis but has a quite small difference between average conditions on a seasonal level. There is a general trend in recent years by which summers are getting drier and hotter and winters wetter and warmer.

Northern and western parts are usually wetter than the rest of England due to the prevailing wind from the north west bringing down cold moist air from the North Atlantic, and the sunniest and warmest areas are in the far south and south west.

Winter and autumn are usually the wettest seasons where the weather is often very changeable and at times quite windy, especially in the north and west, where cold Arctic winds arrive. Spring conditions are very changeable: a day of hot sunshine is likely as not to be followed by a week of cold wind and rain; and vice-versa. Occasional snow even as late as May is not unheard of in northern England, but it will melt very quickly. Snow is particularly rare in the south east. Summer is generally warm in the south with average highs usually ranging from 18-23°C, but be prepared for unsettled weather at any time of the year and make sure to check a weather forecast if you plan to be outdoors.

Hot spells of weather can occur from May to September where temperatures may reach 30°C in the warmest areas of England, typically London and parts of the South East. Central Europe has very hot summers and very cold winters, but England is both less extreme (surrounded by water) and milder in the winter (influenced by the warmth of the North Atlantic Drift). If it were not for the North Atlantic Drift, England would be much much colder.

Below-zero (Celsius) temperatures are an irregular occurrence in the coldest months; but heavy, prolonged, snow is rare and temperatures are rarely below freezing for more than a few days. Perhaps every other year there will be a few days of road and rail disruption if snow falls - it is a common point of concern in England that the English are ill-equipped to cope with bad weather: even the slightest amount of snow often causes delays on public transport, especially rail. Very severe weather conditions are rare, but can cause major problems even though remedial action is usually taken very promptly. Flooding and the opposite, droughts, are minor problems although they are unlikely to affect the traveler. High winds occasionally disrupt travel, most often outside summer. Very rarely, tornadoes occur.

English people are said to have a passion for debating the weather: actually this is usually just an opening gambit to start a conversation with a stranger. Typically, these conversation openers are now heard only among the elderly members of society. Most discussions that do involve weather usually include criticisms of it - including (though perhaps not at the same time) both that it's "too cold" and it's "too hot". Well-known conversational gambits (with due acknowledgment to Peter Kay) : "It's too cold for snow"; "It's that fine rain that soaks you through".

People

The people of England, like their language, are a mixed bunch who have regularly been infused with new blood - from the Romans nearly 2000 years ago taking control of the ancient British in the region, to the later influences of Angles, Saxons and others from Europe after which created the original idea of the English, to the Vikings and then the Normans about a thousand years ago. Since then, there have been Hugenots, Chinese, Jews fleeing pogroms, people from former British colonies in the Caribbean in the 1950s and 60s, Indians expelled from newly independent former African colonies, workers from new EU member states such as Poland, not to mention people from other UK nations and the Republic of Ireland. The full list is very long, but England has long been used to outsiders making it their home - even before England existed! It is true to say that not all English people welcome foreigners and some distastefully racist political organisations exist, but it's worth noting that there is a very small fraction of the population who subscribe to such views: most English people view that sort of person with extreme distaste (sometimes violent hatred) and almost everyone will treat you well if you are polite and make an effort to fit in even if the effort doesn't quite work. Smile, be polite, don't be pushy if you can help it: that's how to get on with the English.

The English are also well used to foreign visitors and you can expect them to be friendly and polite. One thing to bear in mind is that many mostly elderly English people are terrified of giving offence and dislike lying, and so will try to avoid potential pitfalls by sticking to safe (often boring) topics of conversation and occasionally doing the tricky job of avoiding offence by evading a question which worries them, while also trying not to offend you by point blank refusing you an answer. This sort of thing generally wears off as people get to know you. The younger generation are often quite different as far as giving offence is concerned.

Big cities and even some rural places, like those anywhere, have their social problems and an underclass who like to find someone else to blame, but England is predominantly an affluent country with little visible poverty. Rough areas contain rough people in England as in any country: muggings, car theft, and other street crime are unhappily common in some districts of many towns and cities, but England is by and large a very safe country as long as you use your common sense.

In tourist destinations you will meet a mostly friendly people who will take the time to answer a stranger's question, and who may speak English in a colourful or accented way but will be willing to standardise and simplify their speech if you're struggling. Some would say there is a north-south divide, with people in the North more friendly and approachable, while the South (mostly just London though) is a more closed culture with people less willing to stop and speak, but don't take offence, remember most Londoners you see on the streets will usually be rushing to get to somewhere (eg work) and simply don't have the time to talk. However in rural areas of the south, particularly East Anglia and the West Country, people are generally much more laid back and enjoy taking the time to have a chat with strangers. In most of England you will usually find that if you are polite and friendly, you'll get the same in return.

London itself is a very international city where you may not meet any English people, depending on what part of the city you are in.

Climate

England has been stereotyped as being cold, grey and rainy since the ancient Romans wrote home, but this is not an entirely accurate picture. The temperatures rarely get very cold or very hot, and while the country certainly gets rain, it's really not as wet as rumour has it. London alone has lower annual rainfall than Paris and New York, and it's not uncommon for parts of the country to go without rain for weeks and even months in rare cases. Parts of southern England often have summer water restrictions due to a lack of adequate rainfall during the previous winter, summer rainfall being inadequate to supply water demands.

Also in recent years, England has experienced some extremely hot summers. There is plenty of scope for leaving your raincoat at home, but make sure you've got one.

England's weather is very changeable on a day-to-day basis but has a quite small difference between average conditions on a seasonal level. There is a general trend in recent years by which summers are getting drier and hotter and winters wetter and warmer.

Northern and western parts are usually wetter than the rest of England due to the prevailing wind from the north west bringing down cold moist air from the North Atlantic, and the sunniest and warmest areas are in the far south and south west.

Winter and autumn are usually the wettest seasons where the weather is often very changeable and at times quite windy, especially in the north and west, where cold Arctic winds arrive. Spring conditions are very changeable: a day of hot sunshine is likely as not to be followed by a week of cold wind and rain; and vice-versa. Occasional snow even as late as May is not unheard of in northern England, but it will melt very quickly. Snow is particularly rare in the south east. Summer is generally warm in the south with average highs usually ranging from 18-23°C, but be prepared for unsettled weather at any time of the year and make sure to check a weather forecast if you plan to be outdoors.

Hot spells of weather can occur from May to September where temperatures may reach 30°C in the warmest areas of England, typically London and parts of the South East. Central Europe has very hot summers and very cold winters, but England is both less extreme (surrounded by water) and milder in the winter (influenced by the warmth of the North Atlantic Drift). If it were not for the North Atlantic Drift, England would be much much colder.

Below-zero (Celsius) temperatures are an irregular occurrence in the coldest months; but heavy, prolonged, snow is rare and temperatures are rarely below freezing for more than a few days. Perhaps every other year there will be a few days of road and rail disruption if snow falls - it is a common point of concern in England that the English are ill-equipped to cope with bad weather: even the slightest amount of snow often causes delays on public transport, especially rail. Very severe weather conditions are rare, but can cause major problems even though remedial action is usually taken very promptly. Flooding and the opposite, droughts, are minor problems although they are unlikely to affect the traveler. High winds occasionally disrupt travel, most often outside summer. Very rarely, tornadoes occur.

English people are said to have a passion for debating the weather: actually this is usually just an opening gambit to start a conversation with a stranger. Typically, these conversation openers are now heard only among the elderly members of society. Most discussions that do involve weather usually include criticisms of it - including (though perhaps not at the same time) both that it's "too cold" and it's "too hot". Well-known conversational gambits (with due acknowledgment to Peter Kay) : "It's too cold for snow"; "It's that fine rain that soaks you through".

Regions

England can be divided most generally into three sections, with deep historical and linguistic roots for each of them. These can be further divided into regions, which in turn consist of counties (most of which also have long histories, but have been revised in many cases for administrative reasons).

Cities

England has many large cities. Listed below are nine of the most popular:

• London - the capital of both England and the United Kingdom, a vast metropolitan area, and a global capital of finance, fashion and culture. This city, which is the biggest in Western Europe is not to be missed.

• Birmingham - the UK's second largest city (by population) is in the industrial heartland and many attractions for the traveller. It is a cultural, sporting, entertainment, shopping and media hub.

• Bristol - largest city in South England (after London), vibrant music scene, lovely historic buildings and an attractive waterfront.

• Brighton - Regency seaside resort and university town. Quirky shopping, good eating, rich culture and vibrant nightlife in 'London-on-sea'.

• Liverpool - Booming cosmopolitain city with some of the UK's finest landmarks. Famous for its sport, music and nightlife prominence. (European capital of culture 2008)

• Manchester - a cultural, sporting, entertainment, shopping and media hub. Greater Manchester is the UK's second largest city by metropolitan area, but, only by a few thousand, its third largest by population. It is also the third most visited city in The UK after London and Edinburgh.

• Nottingham - home of Robin Hood and Nottingham Castle.

• Newcastle upon Tyne - a thriving northern city with world-famous nightlife.

• York - ancient capital of Yorkshire, with Roman, Viking and Medieval remains.

Other destinations

England has many outstanding landmarks and sites of interest. Listed below are nine of the most notable:

• Hadrian's Wall

• Lake District National Park

• New Forest National Park

• North York Moors National Park

• Oxford and Cambridge - ancient and world famous universities.

• Peak District National Park

• South Downs National park

• Stonehenge

• Yorkshire Dales National Park

Getting there

From outside Great Britain

Since England is on an island, it is not possible to drive directly into England from outside Great Britain. Motorists have two choices to enter England from outside Great Britain, by various car ferry routes, or the Channel Tunnel.

Car ferries

• From mainland Europe. - there are a wide variety of routes and operators from various countries. Ferry routes to British Mainland

• From the Channel Islands. Services connect Jersey and Guernsey with the south of England.

• From the Isle of Man. Services connect Douglas, Isle of Man with the north west of England

• From Ireland. There are only limited car ferry services connecting Ireland directly with England. Alternatively it is possible to take a ferry from Ireland to Wales or Scotland and then continue the journey by road to England.

See "by boat" for further details.

Channel Tunnel

• From France. Eurotunnel run a frequent train service from Calais, France, to Folkestone which carries vehicles and their passengers.

From elsewhere in Great Britain

A number of roads cross England's borders with its British neighbours. These roads range from the simple country lanes to motorways. There are no border controls with Scotland or Wales; indeed, on smaller roads the border may not be noticed at all.

There are no tolls to cross into England; however, motorists need to be aware that crossing from England into Wales via the M4 and M48 Severn Bridges will need to pay a toll. Also, there is a M6 toll road to bypass the congestion of Birmingham (England's second largest city) on the main M6 motorway.

The most important road connections into and out of England are.

• A1 from Edinburgh to Eastern Scotland

• M4 from South Wales

• M74/A74/M6 from Western Scotland

• A55 from North Wales.

By plane

England has numerous airports:

London and the South East

• London Gatwick

• Heathrow Airport - Largest airport in UK, and third busiest in the world.

• London Stansted

• London Luton

• London City

The South

• Southampton

• Bournemouth

The South West

• Bristol

• Exeter

• Newquay

• Plymouth

East Anglia

• Norwich

The Midlands

• Birmingham International

• East Midlands

• Coventry Airport

The North

• Manchester International - largest UK airport outside London

• Liverpool John Lennon

• Newcastle International

• Leeds-Bradford

• Doncaster-Sheffield

• Humberside International

• Durham Tees Valley

• Blackpool

By train

Eurostar links mainland Europe to England. Trains run from Paris, France and Brussels, Belgium (via Lille and Calais) crossing into England via the Channel Tunnel (and often stopping at Ashford) before continuing to St. Pancras Station in London. Occasional services run from other destinations in France. Book as early as possible as fares can be considerably more expensive if trying to book at the last minute.

From Wales and Scotland regular services cross the borders into England.

BritRail Passes are also available to non-UK citizens which allow the traveller unlimited rail travel in England on one ticket.BritRail Passes

By boat

With so much coastline and so many ports, England has extensive shipping links with many countries worldwide. Major ports are Dover, Folkestone, Harwich, Hull, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Southampton, Liverpool, Ipswich and Newcastle. See Ferry routes to British Mainland.

Traveling around

England is well serviced by domestic air, land and sea routes.

There are taxi firms everywhere (many are by booking only - find the phone number of the local company and phone ahead), and every town has a bus service. 'Black Cabs' are also common in cities and can be hailed from the side of the road. Sometimes in city centres, usually just after the nightclubs have closed, there will be queue for taxis which will sometimes be monitored by marshals or police.

Visitors should ensure that they only ever take registered taxis or black cabs; despite government action, many unlawful unregistered private taxi drivers exist - these do have a reputation for being unsafe, particularly if you are a woman.

England has one of the highest densities of railway lines per square mile in the world. There has been much improvement and investment in recent years to the railway network and rolling stock but delays and cancellations do occasionally occur. Overcrowding can be a problem in large cities, especially at 'rush-hour' times (7AM - 9AM & 5PM - 7PM, Monday to Friday) so it is best to avoid these times when tickets can be expensive as well.

Buses are numerous, frequent and reliable in most of the larger towns and cities and an ideal way of getting around. Rural areas are less well served and hiring a car is the best option to explore the countryside and villages.

The roads are of generally excellent quality (although can deteriorate in rural areas) and the signs and markings are arguably the best in Europe. The main problem with driving in England is the sheer volume of traffic on the roads. Unfortunately this is not only limited to rush-hours and large cities. Prepare for travel times being longer than you'd normally anticipate in relation to the mileage. The speed limit, unless otherwise stated, is 30 or 40 mph in built-up areas, 50 or 60 mph (approx 95 km/h) elsewhere and 70 mph (approx. 110 km/h) on motorways and other controlled-access roads. Speed cameras and traffic police are numerous so caution is advised. The traditional British 'reserve' and politeness may occasionally dissolve under the stress of congestion on the major routes, especially with the traffic problems in some of England's larger cities, but generally driving around Britain is an enjoyable experience and it is polite to acknowledge the courtesy of another driver with a nod or the raising of the hand as a form of thank you. Drivers will often flash their headlights to indicate that you are clear to pull out, or otherwise to give way to you, and it is considered polite to say thankyou by giving a wave or a quick flash of your headlights.

Flashing your hazards (ie, both indicators at the same time) is only used as an indication of danger. Usually it's used to indicate the car's broken down or to warn other drivers that there's a hazard up ahead, or more rarely a car directly in front or behind will flash their hazards to inform you or another driver that they consider you to be driving dangerously (this can occasionally lead to confusion as it's sometimes hard to tell whether they're talking to you or another car).

Brown and white road signs indicate nearby tourist attractions, and the blue i sign denotes Tourist Information.

Alternatively, the UK is one of the most cycle-friendly countries in the world. You'll see a lot more from a bicycle, have the freedom to stop wherever you want, no parking headaches and once you've got the bicycle nothing to pay. It is unquestionably the fastest way around London and other major cities - it does have it's dangers but it's well worth the risk.

There are many lovely cycle paths where you can avoid the traffic and soak in the cityscape or countryside. Rough examples of journey times at moderate speed: Buckingham Palace to Tower Bridge: 20 minutes; Buckingham Palace to Windsor Castle: 2 hours; Central London to Oxford city: 5 hours.

You can hire a bicycle from some local bicycle shops, or purchase a decent one privately for between £0-100 secondhand as the UK has a surplus of old bicycles. Make sure you get a helmet particularly for city cycling, and lights especially in winter as the days are very short. Helmets aren't compulsory but the police will fine you for not using lights when it's dark. A decent lock is also essential, particularly in the cities bicycle theft is a common problem - you can't leave it unnatended not even for a minute.

Most of the London underground trains and local busses don't accept cycles, but overground trains and long distance coaches will normally let you on with a bicycle, as long as they're not too full. Arrive early for coaches so you get a space in the luggage hold.

See

London is undoubtedly the start and finish point for most international tourists. It offers countless museums and historical attractions. Sadly though, it is often the only place that many tourists have on their itineries. To truly experience England, then you must venture out of the hustle and bustle of the capital (for ease by train, on a budget by coach) and see what the rest of England has to offer. You will find the rest of England very different to its capital city.

If short on time, you may find it more convenient to base yourself in a regional city and take day trips to the National Parks, coast and smaller towns. If you have plenty of time, then you could base yourself in a B&B (Bed and Breakfast) in any of the above. You will find that public transport to and within cities and large towns is acceptable, but that in smaller places off the beaten track then you should research your journey carefully, or consider hiring a car.

Popular places to visit include the counties of Yorkshire and Cornwall, the National Parks listed above, and the historic towns such as York and Bath.

If short on time, then it is possible to use larger cities as a base for day trips, either by train or coach. For example Leeds, the largest city in Yorkshire makes a great base for day trips to the Yorkshire Dales, North Yorkshire Moors, York and Whitby, whilst offering its own selection of attractions such as the Royal Armories, famed nightlife, theatre and designer shopping in stunning Victorian Era arcades.

Similarly Plymouth makes a good base for exploring Dartmoor, whilst allowing day trips to Cornwall, whilst offering its own range of attractions and museums.

If you have a little longer, you may be able to spend a week more locally based, for example staying in Ambleside in the Lake District.

Preservation trusts

A number of 'umbrella' organisations are devoted to the preservation and public access of both natural and cultural heritage. Membership with them, even on a temporary basis, means priority free access to their properties thereafter - travellers to England seeking to see a large number of sights would do well to join one or more of them:

• English Heritage.

• the National Trust .

English Heritage has an especially wide-ranging remit and manages more than 400 significant buildings and Monuments in England. They also maintain a register of thousands of "listed" buildings , those which are considered of most importance to the historic and cultural heritage of the country.

Things to do

• Golf - see the Golf in England article.

• Walking/hiking - England has many places for walking in the country, which may be called hillwalking or fellwalking in some areas. The Lake District and Peak District are some of the places for more serious walks - see also the itinerary Hikes in the Lake District. The Pennine Way (463km) and Coast To Coast Walk (309km) are the best-known long-distance walks. There are public footpaths and public bridleways all over the country, and most areas of open land are now generally designated for unlimited access (more noticeably in upland areas). People have the right to walk along these and local councils are obliged to maintain records of the routes and keep access open, but do not maintain the paths. Paths are usually signposted where they meet a road, but may not be marked across fields. The paths are shown on the Ordnance Survey Explorer (1:25000) and Landranger (1:50000) maps. Enquire locally for details of the best walks, and what kit (boots, waterproofs, etc.) you will need.

• Beaches Cornwall and Devon have some spectacular natural beaches that would rival those of Australia and California, although they are often much colder.

Eat

It was once traditional the world over to deride English food, and many who have not visited the country, or who only eat in low-grade establishments, still do so. This tradition was perhaps started by people who visited England during or after the Second World War, when rationing continued for a long time and restaurants were limited by law in the price they could charge for a meal (and there was undeniably a long period when old habits died hard). However, the country has produced some notable dishes, such as Beef Wellington and the sandwich. The sandwich was named after the Earl of Sandwich, who found the portable meal convenient as it meant he didn't have to leave the gambling table (though the practice of putting meat between slices of bread was known as far back as Roman times, Sandwich introduced it as a common dish in modern times). Above all, the English are great adopters of other countries' cuisines, to the frequent exclusion of "native" options (English opinion is currently divided as to whether the most popular dish is lasagna or chicken tikka masala, with the latter probably edging out the competition...). There are still low-quality establishments or mediocre chain restaurants for people who do not care for good food (or for spending good money on it), but the last thirty years have seen huge improvements. England has become a major holiday destination, and restaurants and hotels have learned what demanding travellers want. The English themselves have learned to appreciate good food by visiting countries all over the world and have come home expecting pubs and restaurants to justify their prices by providing interesting and well-presented meals. "A meal out" is the usual way to celebrate a special family event, and people expect the meal to live up to the occasion. Cooking programmes are now among the most popular on the television, supermarkets have turned many previously unknown foods into everyday items, and Farm Shops and Farmers' Markets have surprised all the commentators by becoming extremely popular weekend "leisure" destinations where people can buy excellent English meat, fruit, and vegetables.

Typical/traditional English food:

• Fish and chips — deep-fried, battered fish (usually cod or haddock) with chips (french fries in America), best from specialist fish and chip shops (very different article from "fish and chips" on a general restaurant or pub menu). Available throughout the UK (see that article for more information on finding perfect fish and chips).

• Roast dinner (also known as the "Sunday roast" due to the day it is traditionally consumed on) is available between lunchtime and early evening in virtually any English pub serving food. Quality will vary greatly depending on how freshly cooked the food is (home cooked is invariably better).

• Yorkshire Pudding — a batter pudding served with a roast (usually beef); originally used instead of a plate and eaten with the meal. Giant version often appears on (not very refined) pub menus as a main meal item, with a "filling" (Giant Yorkshire Pudding filled with beef stew).

• Toad in the Hole — sausages in Yorkshire pudding batter

• Steak and Kidney Pie — a suet pudding made with beef steak and kidneys

• Lancashire Hotpot — a hearty vegetable and meat stew from Lancashire

• Cornish Pasty (and other forms of meat pie around the country) — beef and vegetables in a pastry case

• Full English Breakfast — (often abbreviated: do not be alarmed if your server at the hotel breakfast table asks you "Do you want the Full English?") At its "fullest", it might consist of fried bacon, fried eggs, fried sausages, fried bread, fried black pudding, mushrooms, scrambled eggs, baked beans in tomato sauce, and toast and butter - "washed down" by a large amount of hot strong tea or coffee with milk. An Americanised version is now emerging, with hash browns instead of fried bread. Served in less refined versions in truckers' stops, and posher versions in hotels (where there will often be a buffet of these items to "help yourself" from). It is sometimes said that this meal is only a legend foisted on tourists, because the English are now too busy for breakfast. Typically, however, the English perceive the 'fry-up' (as it is known) as a suitable meal to consume when hungover after a night of drinking or as a weekend treat. Any inexpensive café (of the type with day-glo price stickers in the window, and whose name is pronounced "caff" in northern England) will have "all-day breakfast" on the menu (for the finest examples, look for the EBCB website).

Pubs are a good place to get reasonably priced food, though most stop serving food at around 9-9:30PM. Others may stop serving food between lunch and dinner. Pub food has become quite sophisticated in recent years and as well as serving the more traditional hearty English fare, more exotic dishes are now prepared in the majority of the larger pubs and specialist "gastropubs".

English food has recently undergone a revolution with many larger cities having award-winning restaurants run by the many 'famous' TV chefs who have now become part of the English obsession with food. Eating out at a high-quality restaurant can be an expensive experience: at the very top end (Michelin Star level) expect to pay £100 per head including wine. A decent three-course meal out at a respectable restaurant will normally cost around £30-£40 per head including wine.

If good quality and cheaply priced food is more your choice, try one of the many ethnic restaurants such as Chinese, Asian or Mexican. Eating a curry or balti in an Indian restaurant is tantamount to an English obsession. These restaurants are found everywhere — even the larger villages have them — and usually the food is of good quality and they will cater for most tastes. A good curry with side dishes can be had for around £10-15 per head, and some without liquor licences allow you to bring your own alcoholic beverages in. Eating a curry out is a social occasion and often you will find the men try to challenge their own taste buds to a duel, opting for spicier curries than they find comfortable! In the towns and cities these restaurants are usually open late (especially on a Friday and Saturday night) to cater for people eating after the pubs have closed. It is at this time that they can get very busy and lively, so if you want to avoid the crowds then visit the restaurants before the local pubs shut.

Unlike many other European countries, vegetarian (and to a lesser extent, vegan) food is widely available and appreciated in pubs and restaurants with several dishes usually appearing on the menu alongside the more normal meat and fish options. However, vegetarians may still find the variety of dishes rather limited - particularly in pubs, where certain dishes such as "veggie" lasagne or mushroom stroganoff feature all too regularly.

Tipping is generally expected in restaraunts unless a service charge has been added to the bill, with a tip of around 10% considered to be the norm. Tipping in bars and cafes is less common.

Drink

Places

The traditional drinking establishment is the "pub" (short for "public house"). These are normally named after local landmarks or events, and most will have a heraldic (or pseudo-heraldic) symbol on the sign outside; more recent establishments may poke fun of this tradition (e.g. "The Queen's Head" featuring a portrait of Freddie Mercury, lead singer for the rock band Queen). England seems to have an incredible number of pubs. While in a city you are usually not more than a 5 min walk from any pub.

The pub is an English institution, though a declining one. Tastes are changing, smoking has been banned inside pubs, drink-driving is taboo, and pub landlords are often squeezed by sharp practice by the big firms which supply beers, and which also own many pub buildings.

There are many different kinds of pub. Some are traditional 'locals', and a real part of the community. These vary widely in character. Depending on the area, you can find a warm and friendly welcome, or drunken workmen spoiling for a fight.

However, pubs are becoming more and more specialized. In city centres, many have been taken over by big chains; some are soulless, some are moderately pleasant. Some independennt pubs have become wine bars or cocktail bars; perhaps the least pleasant are those pubs which pack in customers on their way to a nightclub, with loud music, no space, and super-cheap spirits to make sure their clients are as drunk as possible by 11pm.

However, many pubs are evolving in a more healthy direction. There are now many pubs which pride themselves on serving 'real ales' - beer brewed on a smaller scale to traditional English methods and recipes. Any visiting beer lover should track these down. Many pubs, both in the countryside and in cities, have moved towards serving good food. And while most pubs will serve food, it's in these 'gastropubs' that you'll find well-prepared food, generally a mixture of traditional English dishes and international influences. The prices will tend to match.

Pubs have a little of their own etiquette. At any proper pub, service is always at the bar. It's polite to strike up a conversation with anyone else who is standing or sitting at the bar. And if someone buys you a drink, you will be expected to 'stand your round' later on, buying for whoever you're drinking with. If you're planning to leave promptly, or don't have enough money, then you should politely decline the offer.

Although traditional pub licencing laws severely restricted their hours of operation, laws enacted in 2005 allow pubs to request more flexible opening hours. Few pubs have requested anywhere near the "24 hour drinking" that is theoretically possible: as a general rule more traditional pubs will close at 11PM still. Some of the more trendy bars will close nearer to 1AM, filling a niche in the market between traditional pub and nightclub. However in most cities and many towns, centrally located pubs and bars will stay open anytime from 2AM till 6AM, especially on Friday and Saturday nights. Also, at public holiday times, many pubs extend their closing times — especially New Year's Eve.

Alcoholic drinks

England is home to a huge variety of alcoholic drinks. As well as wines and spirits (mainly imported, but some local), all pubs sell several beers and at least one cider. The main types of beer you will come across are lager , bitter and stout. Real Ale is not a separate classification, it refers to beer made and served by traditional methods.

Lager — Predominantly the pilsner type: pale, fizzy and cold. Because of the popularity of this type of beer amongst the young, there are many mass-market national brands brewed in the UK (and widely advertised with "having fun" type ads) which may disappoint anyone wanting more than simply cold, fizzy, alcohol. Some national brands are much better, and often stronger, and may be sold in bottles as well as on draught. Purists often prefer imported European-brewed lagers.

Bitter — The most common example of the English type of beer technically called called "ale" (see below). They are typically darker than lagers - they are called bitter because they have more hops than mild (another less-common kind of ale). Again, there are well-advertised national brands for the mass market, usually less strong than lagers. Most are now not "real ales": they are not matured in the barrel; they are often called "smooth" or "cream" (which means that they but are infused with nitrogen to give a small-bubbled head) and are often served very cold from a small tap on a tall, illuminated stand.

Stout — A dark, heavy, usually very bitter beer. Originally called Porter, Arthur Guinness decided he could do better and made Guinness which he branded a Stout Porter. Guinness is one world-famous Irish brand that is available almost everywhere in England, often in "normal" and "extra cold" versions.

All of the mass-market types above can be bought in cans - often with a "widget" that when the can is opened, forces nitrogen bubbles through the beer to simulate "draught" beer.

Ale — This is not simply another word for "Bitter" or "Beer". Technically it simply means any beer other than lager (ie it is a beer brewed at cellar temperatures using floating yeast, ie bitters, milds and stouts). However, these days "ale" is often used a little self-consciously, usually either as a "matey" word for any type of beer ("Anyone fancy a few ales?") or in a consciously "traditional" way ("Try a pint of good old English ale"). To ask for "A pint of ale, please." would sound like a line from a period film. However "Real Ale" is an accepted term, so to ask "What real ales do you have on?" would be quite normal.

Real Ale — The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) has been a very successful consumer campaign, its aims have been to ensure that mass-market beers do not completely force out beers made in the traditional way. CAMRA created the term "Real Ale" to summarise the type of beer they wanted to keep alive: it must be allowed to continue maturing after it leaves the brewery (ie not be pasteurised or filtered to remove living yeast; be stored and served without additional gas (ie does not have carbon dioxide or nitrogen forced into the beer); and be served at the appropriate temperature for the style: traditional ales are not generally served warm, as many people believe, but at the temperature of the 'cool' cellar they have been maturing in for several days (ideally, 8–12°C) . Most real ales are served from the distinctive "handpumps" which allow a pint to be "pulled" from the cellar by several full-length strokes requiring visible effort on the part of the server. Most "real ales" served in ordinary pubs are bitters, but these come in a wide range of strengths, colours, and bitterness. A majority of pubs now serve at least one or two national brands of real ale, and perhaps one or even two local ones.

"Real ale pubs" — At a pub which especially caters to lovers of real ale, or at a beer festival, there will be more local brands (and "guests" from some distance away) and a wider range of bitters, and even a good choice of other types. Expect to see summer ales, winter ales, exotic beers (containing ingredients such as heather, honey or ginger), light milds, dark milds, lagers, stouts and, increasingly, porters (like a stronger dark mild, or a lighter, sweeter stout). These will be served from a long row of handpumps or (even more traditionally) straight from barrels sitting on the bar or (especially at beer festivals) in racks. There will also be a wide range of "bottle-conditioned" beers ("real ale in a bottle") usually either versions of English bitters, often called "pale ales", or very strong beers from France or Belgium. There will also be several ciders and perries.

Cider — In England this means an alcoholic drink made from apples (often much stronger than beer). These are generally brewed in the West Country (Somerset, Devon & Cornwall) but not exclusively so as Herefordshire is also another region famous for its cider. The more commercial brands of cider, served from pressurised kegs and so available at any pub, are clear, fizzy and cold , and quite strong (they are usually moderately or very sweet, so the high alcohol content may go unnoticed by a novice). A real ale pub will usually sell at least one "real", unpressurised, cider, perhaps from a barrel sitting on the bar. This may may be clear or slightly cloudy, but will be almost certainly be still, not too sweet, and very strong (7% alcohol is only average for this type of cider). The most traditional cider is called Scrumpy and is usually very strong, very cloudy and possibly (but not always) rather sour. Some commercial ciders have "scrumpy" in their name, but these are not quite the same as a gallon jug bought at the farmhouse door.

Perry — Similar to cider but made from pears (is sometimes called pear cider, especially if imported). Farmhouse perry was always difficult to get hold of outside the West Country, but this is improving, and there will nearly always be some available at a beer festival. Keen perry-spotters might notice the sweetish "undercover" commercial versions : advertised nationwide with a "girls night out" theme and sold in wine-shaped bottles with "inexpensive white wine"-type labels bearing the legend "Perry" in small letters.

Non-alcoholic drinks

Tea is widely drunk throughout the country, almost always hot, usually strong, usually with milk, and quite often with sugar. There are many popular brands (the most recognisable brands are PG Tips and Tetley). Tea is usually drunk at home or at work or to accompany breakfast in inexpensive restaurants (where it will usually arrive with milk already in it), or with afternoon tea (scones, cream, jam, and cakes) at a "tea-room" (less-frequently seen these days, except in expensive hotels or in holiday areas.

Coffee is as popular as tea. Instant coffee (made with hot water, hot milk, or "half and half") is much used at home and work, and in inexpensive restaurants. If it is made with just hot water, then it is "black coffee"; with added cold milk it becomes "white coffee". Percolators are little used, and machines with paper filters are less common than they once were: they often fill a restaurant with a coffee aroma, but a mediocre restaurant will often leave the made coffee heating for too long. Therefore, at dinner parties or good restaurants, the "french press" (cafetiere) has become the standard way to serve "real" ("ground") coffee: the customer can leave the coffee infusing until it as as strong as they like, then press the filter down to stop the brew and restrain the grounds from getting into the cup. The drinker then adds their own milk (hot milk is often provided; cream less often) and sugar. Seattle-style coffee bars serve the usual types of espresso-based coffees (but with a less-bewildering choice of combinations of coffee, milk, sugar, and flavourings). Decaffeinated coffee is available, but not standard. A Pub may serve coffee, but "Bar" type of pub (at a non-busy time of day) is a better option. International coffeshops such as Starbucks, Costa's and Cafe Nero are very common in large towns and cities. These often serve a wide range of coffees, teas and hot chocolate.

Sleep

England offers the usual Western assortment of sleeping options including

• Hostels Both private institutions and those part of a hosteling networking (which may require membership so check ahead) usually offer dorm style accommodations, sometimes with a simple breakfast included (think toast and tea). Many hostels in popular destination cities fill up during the busy summer season, so try to book ahead or at least call before you arrive.

• Bed and Breakfasts can range from a single room in a private home to large historical buildings with dozens of rooms. In many towns the tourist office has a list of rooms available and can help you call around.

• Hotels in cities and towns, and near motorway junctions, as well as some grand Country House Hotels.

• Motels Mostly in the form of large chains such as Travel Inn and Travelodge, with hundreds across the country.

• Camping There is a widespread network in country locations of campsites which welcome tents, caravans, or motorhomes. Sites may welcome some or all of these. But don't expect to find many close to cities and major tourist attractions.

• Universities It has been possible to get accommodation in some Universities and Colleges out of term time for a while. However is a bit better than most previous sites, in that it provides good information and tips about the places it covers, which include Oxford and Cambridge. However it does not cover all the places where accommodation is available.

While the rooms are generally comfortable, rooms at the lower end of the price scale may be small and usually come without air conditioning, cable TV, coffee machines, and other amenities. In very inexpensive accommodation, for example in dormitory style hostels, towels and soap may not be provided. Most hotels that provide breakfast will offer a choice between a full english (see above) or continental. The continental normally consists of bread rolls, croissant, cereal, pain au chocolat and cold meats such as ham and salami. Beverages such as fresh fruit juice, tea, coffee and hot chocolate are served too.

Buy

Currency is Pounds Sterling (GBP). Euros are sometimes accepted as well (particularly in larger stores), but it is best to assume otherwise. Note that although Bank of England notes are accepted all over the United Kingdom, you may have trouble with using Northern Irish and Scottish notes in England due to shop staff being unfamiliar with them.

Credit cards are accepted in most shops and restaurants. Visa and Mastercard are the most widely accepted, though debit cards with the Maestro logo are also taken. American Express cards are accepted in fewer establishments, but most restaurants will accept it. Credit cards with a Chip and PIN have become nearly compulsory. Credit card agreements mostly require merchants to accept cards with a swipe and signature, however, it is wise to carry enough cash in case the retailer does not comply.

Talk

When an English person says "Meet me at half five", they mean "Meet me at five thirty". If the directions say "go to the top of the road", that means the end of the road.

Some words mean one thing to Americans and something else entirely to British folks. When an English man says he shared a "fag" with his "mate" that means only that he smoked a cigarette with a friend. If he adds that they also had a "gorgeous" meal, it means it was followed by a nice dinner. If they had a "shag" it means they had sex afterwards.

Then there are the words unique to British English; a sneaker or tennis shoe, for instance, is called a "trainer."

Moreover, the diverse history of the country, and the influx of various cultures over the centuries (e.g. Vikings, Normans, Romans, Celtic peoples), have produced a very wide range of accents, and there are still traces of regional dialects (vocabulary and grammar). Best not to imitate the accents, you will be seen as mocking.

An accent will usually reveal where someone was brought up — sometimes to within quite a small area (a criminal was recently caught because his accent on a recorded phone call was traceable to a single neighbourhood). Today, even well-educated professionals are happy to keep their regional accent: the unhappy days when people from outside the South East felt that they had to hide their accent to "get on" have gone. It is now only people who go to public (i.e. private, fee-paying) schools who learn to speak in a "geography-free" way (the "upper-class accent" of colonial rulers, well-known from old British films, or modern parodies). Differences in accent are very real: a visitor who is expecting a particular accent they are familiar with from the cinema or television (perhaps "Dick van Dyke Cockney" or "Hugh Grant Silly Ass Upper Crust") will usually have to wait a day or two to get really accustomed to the real accents they hear around them. Even English people, familiar with other accents from TV or by knowing neighbours or colleagues who have moved from other areas, can still struggle when far from home. "Geordie", the accent/dialect of Tyneside, is a famously strong accent when spoken quickly amongst a group of people who do not know that a stranger is trying to tune in. Most people are happy to tone down (or slow down) their accent when a stranger is in difficulty. When encountering a broad Geordie accent it can be quite difficult for someone who is not accustomed to it to understand it, and there are still various dialectic words in common use such as hyem = home, gan/gannin = going, wor = our and divvint = don't.

Dialects exist, but as a matter of interest, not confusion. People across England would expect to understand anyone from anywhere else in England, because the few everyday dialect words are usually well known from TV. Differences are interesting, but not critical. Some examples from the north of England: "ey up" ("Hello"), "aye" ("yes", as in Scotland and the North of England); "tha" ("you", as in thee and thou, still common in South Yorkshire). Real differences are of little consequence these days: for instance, people growing up in Manchester, Leeds and Sheffield use "jennel", "jinnel", and "ginnel" as the word for a particular type of narrow alley between houses.

A few useful words which may help you understand the English (particularly in the Midlands and North): "ta" = thank you, "ta ra/ta ta" = goodbye, "summat/summit/summink" = something, "nowt" = nothing, "owt" = "anything", "dunna/dunno" = don't know, "canna/cannit = cannot.

Be prepared to have to use English to make yourself understood. Few people here speak a second language fluently. However, most people were taught one second language (usually French, German or Spanish) at school, and may remember enough to be willing to help a stranger in difficulties (if they can get over the embarrassment of being seen to "show off").

Because of immigration, especially from Commonwealth countries, many languages are spoken in the big cities. There are also smaller places where particular languages are common. Expect to hear (and even see signs in) Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, Gujarati, Greek, Turkish and varieties of Arabic. Because of links with Hong Kong, many Chinese people live here (London and Manchester in particular have thriving communities).

Another English peculiarity is the use of terms of endearment as part of a sentence in a conversation such as "darling", "pet", "love", "hun", "duck", "bab", "mate", "sweetheart", "flower", "queen" and a few others. It can be confusing, or perhaps even embarrassing, for somebody who is not accustomed to this to be called "darling" by a total stranger; however, this is something which is nowadays mainly used by the older generation and found less in the younger generation.

You will hear English people say "sorry". This is not down to guilt or self-consciousness but simply because it is synonymous with "excuse me", and is used to get somebody's attention. Alternatively it can be synonymous with "pardon". Any comments along the lines of "What are you sorry about?" are pointless.

Etiquette

See the UK article for more information

The English are in general a very polite people, and like most other places it is considered bad manners not to say "please" or "thank you". A nod or a smile are also often the response. Sometimes strangers and friends address each other by "mate", the same as they do in Australia. Thus it is common to hear "Cheers mate" or "Thanks mate" "you alright, mate?", etc.

The English are said to be reserved, and this is often thought to mean that they are reluctant to communicate with strangers. This is a misconception. You will find that most people are happy to talk to strangers; it probably won't be a deep conversation, but mostly small talk about where you come from, if you're enjoying your visit, etc.

It is said that the English invented queueing, and they become very annoyed if anyone jumps the line, although this is probably the same for most countries. Don't be surprised if you get shoved to the back of the line. (The same "patient queueing" applies to waiting in traffic jams as well: don't use the horn excessively as most people in England seemed to have grasped that it doesn't make the traffic go any faster and it is seen as impatient and rude.)

When you find yourself in a restaurant or being invited to someone's home for a meal, just general table manners you get anywhere else apply. These include not eating with fingers or off of other's plates, not talking with your mouth full, etc. Unless you have been invited to a very posh upper-class meal don't worry about old-fashioned rules of etiquette: generally nobody in England ever uses them.

Stay healthy

In the United Kingdom, there is no cost to a patient at the time of their need, due to the welfare state system. In a medical emergency, dial 999 or 112. These numbers are free of charge from any telephone. For advice on non-emergency medical problems, you can ring the 24 hour NHS Direct service on 0845 4647 or check their website for advice.

Emergencies can be dealt with under the NHS (National Health Service) at any hospital with an A & E (Accident & Emergency) department. At A&E departments, be prepared to wait for up to 2-3 hours during busy periods before being given treatment if your medical complaint is not too serious. Obviously, more serious ailments are usually treated immediately. Evenings are normally busiest, particularly on Fridays and Saturdays and in city centres.

For advice on minor ailments and non-prescription drugs, you can ask a pharmacist (there are many high-street chemists). These are increasingly using green signs similar to ones seen in Europe to identify them. Small pharmacies are also found inside many larger supermarkets.

Smoking is prohibited in all public buildings. All enclosed workplaces are lawfully required to be smoke free. Some restaurants provide separate rooms for smokers and many pubs now have outdoor beer gardens where smoking is permitted, while many places will have a group of people standing outside the front door or off to one side to smoke.

Safety

In any emergency call 999 or 112 (from a land-line if you can) and ask for Ambulance, Fire, Police or Coast Guard when connected.

Crime levels are low in England, however you should always use general common sense to ensure you keep out of trouble. In most of the major cities, you will find outlying suburban and inner city areas where poverty, crime and gang violence are common. These areas are often very dangerous and should be avoided. Again, common sense is the best way to stay safe. Having said that, it is unlikely a visitor would end up in such areas anyway.

Crime rates are generally very low in rural areas, although some small poorer towns can be surprisingly rough.

Take care when driving on country lanes as they can become very narrow and the lesser travelled ones are often in poor condition.

It is worth taking extra care on public transport, particularly at night, as pickpockets and drunks can be a problem. Also, it should be noted that in some cities, there have been incidents of street gangs carrying out robberies on buses and trains at night. Visitors should not be too concerned, however, as these are very rare occurrences.

Some town and city centres should be approached with caution during the later evening on Fridays and Saturdays in particular, as high levels of drunkenness can be rife. Many English drunks can all too often become aggressive, and outbreaks of unprovoked violence have happened, but again, common sense can help avoid problems with drunken people. At night it is also recommended that you use licensed taxis or licensed mini cabs. Taxis are available at taxi ranks or by phone, while mini cabs are by phone booking only - asking at the bar will usually provide you with numbers. Unofficial/unlicensed mini cabs which cruise the street looking for fares have a reputation as dangerous for lone females; the most common incident is the passenger is driven to a secluded area, and then raped.

Learn

England has many options for foreign students including language, history, and cultural programmes as well as advanced degrees at such well-known universities as Cambridge and Oxford. England also has several other world-class institutions, including several in London notably Imperial College, Cass Business School and the London School of Economics, University College London and King's College London which are part of The University of London. Outside of London in England the top universities are located in Birmingham (University of Birmingham), Manchester (University of Manchester), Liverpool (University of Liverpool), Leeds (University of Leeds), Sheffield (University of Sheffield), Bristol (University of Bristol), Southampton (University Of Southampton) , York (University of York), Nottingham (University of Nottingham), Bath (University of Bath), Newcastle (Newcastle University) and (Northumbria University), Warwick(University of Warwick) and Durham (University of Durham).

Students from countries within the European Union do not require a visa to study in England. Most cities have at least one institute of higher learning. Home and EU students have to pay tuition fees (presently capped at £3225 + inflation/year. Students from outside of the EU have to pay fees that can reach several times those for home students.

Work

Options for short-term employment include bar tending and waiting tables as well as more specialised work such as in the high tech / computer industry. Visitors from Commonwealth countries will have a much easier time getting a work permit, especially those under 30 as there are several programs.

Citizens of countries belonging to the European Union (Germany, France, Spain, etc) do not require a permit and are free to live and work in England, however, certain restrictions currently apply to certain new EU member states (such as Bulgaria, Romania, etc), so you will need to check this out before travelling.

See Contact entry under United Kingdom for national information on telephone, internet and postal services.

See Contact entries under individual cities for local information.